Introduction
How should Christians form their identity considering the truth of the Gospel? 1 Peter is filled with exemplars and scripture that helps to form the Christian community’s identity. Peter is desiring to form the community during their situation and experiences. Connecting narratives and stories to a person’s experiences helps to form a communal identity that can shape an entire community. Peter uses the Old Testament, and example of Christ, to shape the identity of the community and encourage them to engage the world properly considering the mission and story of God. 1 Peter 3:9 shapes the social identity of the audience through its use of exemplars: Jesus, Israel, Abraham, David, and Esau. Each one is an identifiable character that the congregation would be shaped by and even enter their narratives.
Social Identity
Every person develops their identity in relationship to others, the past, and the present. Both inclusion and exclusion develop a person’s identity. Miroslov Volf in Exclusion and Embrace points out that a person’s identity is “shaped in interaction with others.”1 Volf writes about identity formation through the experiences he had in his home country of Croatia. Ultimately, identity is formed through exclusion of others and certain ideas but can also be formed through embracing others. It is important to note, that identity is formed and shaped through a person’s interaction with others. By embracing certain groups and ideas, a person shapes their identity and joins the narrative of the common beliefs of the group they are a part of.
Social Psychology
In social psychology, a theory has been developed that analyzes an individual’s identity through the impact of group membership. For the sake of analyzing 1 Peter, only two features of social identity formation are used. Firstly, exemplars and prototype characters are needed that embody the characteristics in which the group is expected to have. 2 Meaning, central to developing a social identity is to have everyone in the group look to people that embodied the characteristics desires to shape the community. These examples help form the identity of that group as they seek commonality in the exemplar. This commonality binds the group together and helps form the identity of the individual members as they connect in their commonality in the exemplar they choose to emulate.
Secondly, social identity theory includes a social creativity in which the community inverts negative aspects to then claim them as a positive.3 Ultimately, this helps to reshape an individual’s identity as characteristics or situations are reinterpreted from negative aspects to positive. Both these features are present in 1 Peter that help to reshape the community’s identity. Connected to social identity theory, is narrative transportation theory.
Narrative Transportation Theory
Timothy Brock and Michelle Green propose a theory called Narrative Transportation Theory in which they suggest that narratives can impact the beliefs of people to such a degree that the narrative impacts the person’s world.4 This impact is so strong that they concluded it did not matter whether the stories were true or not. Narratives and stories are powerful tools that have the ability to shape the identity of entire groups. Several characteristics of a narrative are needed in order to be persuasive and transform the community. For a narrative to be persuasive it needs to have identifiable characters. The audience, in order to identify with the character, must share in the experiences and feelings of the characters in the narrative as if they themselves had been the ones to experience it.5
The second criteria to making a narrative that shapes identity is that an imaginable plot must be given. This means that the story being told needs to influence the mind of the recipients to the point that they develop the mental imagery. The more mental imagery that is involved in the narrative, the greater the likelihood of persuasion.6 The audience must be able to visualize and “see” the images in their mind and the better this is done, the greater the persuasion. The third criterion is simple in that the story must be believable. If it is unbelievable than it does not catch on as it must be something that can happen in real life.7
An individual’s identity is shaped and formed through relationships and the beliefs of the community. An individual can be greatly shaped through narratives that have characters as exemplars that the community focuses on as someone to emulate. These characters need to be identifiable, and the audience must be engrossed into the narrative through mental imagery and believability of the story. This identity formation shines through in 1 Peter as the audience is given several different characters to emulate who have experiences similar to theirs in which they can identify and join in the story being presented.
1 Peter
1 Peter uses several narratives throughout in order to shape their identity and join in the narrative of God. From the very start, the audience is addressed as ἐκλεκτοῖς, being chosen, παρεπιδήμοις, being sojourners, and διασπορᾶς being dispersed or exiled. From the start of the letter, Peter is addressing the audience through similar language as that of Israel. Israel was chosen by God and exiled which helps the congregation to connect to the story of God. Not only that but being a sojourner has several images, one of which is connecting to Abraham and potentially to Jesus himself as he is a sojourner while on earth. These descriptions in the first few sentences of 1 Peter demonstrate his use of images, narratives, and characters in order to reach the people. For this paper, the focus will be on 1 Peter 3:9 in consideration of identity formation in connection to Jesus, Esau, David, and Abraham. This section serves as summary of the household codes that precede it which is displayed through τὸ δὲ τέλος.8
Connect to Jesus
μὴ ἀποδιδόντες κακὸν ἀντὶ κακοῦ. Peter tells the audience to not repay evil for evil which is commanded in ἀποδιδόντες as it is a participle that is used imperatively.9 Not only should they not repay evil for evil but they also are commanded to not return abuse for abuse, ἢ λοιδορίαν ἀντὶ λοιδορίας which is language that recalls the example of Christ in non-retaliation which is addressed priorly in 1 Peter 2:23.10, 11, It is important to note that this allusion to Christ then is regarding a larger narrative. It is not merely addressing a single aspect of mistreatment but instead connects the community to the life of Christ. The community is experiencing some form of persecution, if they were not, Peter would not be addressing being mistreated. This connection to Jesus is not merely his suffering but rather is best explained by “a common early Christian parenetic tradition”12 that draws on the actions of Jesus as well as his teachings.13, 14 Not only is he drawing on Jesus for the this teaching but is actually setting Christ up as a character that the church should pattern their life off of in relation to a hostile, ungodly society.15 This is not merely pointing to a single event but is instead looking at the full life and teachings of Christ. This is portrayed when Peter then says τοὐναντίον δὲ εὐλογοῦντες which reflects the attitude of Christ as we are called to bless people even when we are mistreated.
This connection to Christ would have a great impact on the community. The audience is having their social identity formed through an exemplar and prototype who embodies the characteristics of this group, namely, to not retaliate but instead, to bless. The congregation can identify with Christ as Jesus shared the teachings of God but then suffered at the hands of wicked people even while doing good. Not only did he experience physical suffering, which is part of κακὸν, but they are also told to not return abuse for abuse, which is thought to be verbal.16 Jesus when physically mistreated, does not retaliate but he also does not retaliate when people slander him.17 The congregation has similar experiences as they are living in a hostile world that is not treating them properly and this makes Jesus an identifiable character, an imaginable plot, and a believable story as many people had seen Jesus incarnate. Thus, presenting the story of Jesus to the congregation forms their social identity and helps the congregation embrace the narrative of God. Yet, Jesus is not the only exemplar in 1 Peter 3:9, Abraham is as well.
Connection to Abraham
Throughout 1 Peter, symbols and illusions are provided to stir up images of Abraham. All the way back in 1 Peter 1:1, it addresses the congregation as sojourners. Not only are allusions to Abraham made, but also in the close surrounding context a reference to Sarah and Abraham is made. Sarah and Abraham are referenced in 3:6 of the household codes, which is summarized in 3:9. Having a reference to Abraham and his wife within a few sentences, places Abraham within the surrounding context and is important for shaping the identity of the congregation.
Peter, in chapter 3, uses the phrase ὅτι εἰς τοῦτο ἐκλήθητε ἵνα εὐλογίαν κληρονομήσητε. “For this you have been called, in order that you may inherit a blessing.” Debates rage on ὅτι εἰς τοῦτο and what “this” refers to. Out of the options, it is best to see, ὅτι εἰς τοῦτο ἐκλήθητε as looking backward and that the ἵνα clause is expressing result.18 Called and blessing are very easily associated with the call and blessing of Abraham. Abraham himself is called to leave his home in Genesis 12 in which he then would be considered a sojourner among the nations. As he is called to leave his home to follow God, he receives a blessing as all the earth is going to be blessed through him. Abraham is an exemplar that the community can follow as he becomes a sojourner in a foreign land when he left his home to pursue God. The congregation are foreigners who are called just like Abraham and sojourners waiting for the blessing and inheritance God has promised them. This inheritance promised to Abraham is very interesting in that the congregation is already joint heirs with Christ, but at the same time there is a kingdom that is inherited in the future.19 In the connection to Abraham, there is also a subtle warning to the congregation which is displayed in its subtle allusion to Esau.
Connection to Esau
Several scholars have made the connection between “inherit a blessing” in 1 Peter with that of Hebrews 12:17. Michaels explains that Hebrews 12 is most likely linked to the authors use of Esau as an example.20 In the story of Esau, he returns from an unsuccessful hunt and being hungry, sold his birthright, his inheritance. Esau sold this birthright, in Genesis 25, in order to receive soup from his brother. Esau struggled in his discomfort and misfortune and decides to quench his intense hunger by giving up his birthright. This fits the context of 1 Peter as the congregation is being reminded to be faithful and not flout their inheritance. The congregation does not need to earn the inheritance since they already have it considering 1:3-5. The point is that they can jeopardize their entrance into that inheritance if they are “flouting the behavior appropriate to that inheritance.”21 Several commentators made the connection to Esau but interestingly, none of them connected it to the household codes. Esau giving away his inheritance is in the context of relationship within a household. Considering this section is a summary of the household codes, and considering the other connections, it does appear as if there are allusions to the story of Esau and how the community can learn from his story. This vocabulary of “inheritance” and “calling” does not only have allusions to Abraham and Esau, but also has subtle allusions to Israel itself.
Connection to Israel
Throughout 1 Peter, subtle connections to Israel are laced throughout. Being called and chosen in 1:15; 5:10, temporary residents in 1:17, and the use of temple language 2:4-6 helps to build a connection to Israel as this is often language used in association with Israel. Peter is addressing the “elect” as early as 1:1 which Israel was chosen by God to be his people and the congregation of 1 Peter are entering into this called people. The call to be holy in 1:15 and the use of a metaphor of a spiritual temple gives allusions to the priesthood that served Israel.22 Not only are these metaphors running throughout but there is an interesting connection between the inheritance of Israel with that of proper behavior. Israel is called to be faithful in light of the inheritance God has promised them, but the people are called to faithful obedience and proper living. The laws provided by Moses are given for the people to walk in faithfulness, but disobedience came with a warning of curses as consequences are given when unfaithfulness occurs.23 The story of Israel is important to the congregation of 1 Peter as they have entered into the story of God as part of his chosen people. But being part of the chosen people has social and moral implications. The congregation is being encouraged to stay faithful and receive the inheritance that is in heaven waiting for them, but it also serves as a warning to remain faithful. Being faithful is important as the concept of inheriting a blessing carries with it a future orientation in which they are receiving both encouragement and warning to be faithful.24 The congregation has entered into the story of God’s chosen people as they are called to live holy and inherit a blessing. Israel was called to model God’s character and make it known, which is the same thing the congregation is called to do through its non-retaliatory behavior of Jesus who is God.25 The people have entered into a similar purpose and calling as that of Israel. Referencing Israel and helping the congregation enter into the story is shaping their social identity.
Connection to David
In the immediate surrounding context of 1 Peter 3:9, there is a reference to David through the usage of Psalms 33 in the Septuagint. This Psalm is quoted in 1 Peter 3:10-12 which places David in the immediate context of the inheritance and as a result has an illusion to David. This quote of the Psalms is ultimately to give assurance to Christians as God looks with favor upon the righteous regardless of what the wicked do to them.26 What many commentators miss is that the quote of Psalms is not merely to reference the specific verses, but this quote brings on a new meaning when situated in its context. Most commentators claim the quote is about the Lord’s deliverance from suffering but many fail to go beyond that summary. To truly understand the inheritance in 1 Peter 3:9, one must look to the context of Psalms 33 LXX to appreciate the quote as Peter is not proof texting Psalms but rather using its larger narrative.
The quote of Psalms 33 LXX would draw a reader back to 1 Samuel 21 in which David is sojourning among the Philistines after he fled from Saul. Keep in mind that prior to this, Saul is king, but that kingship is going to be stripped from him as a result of his disobedience in 1 Samuel 15.27 In 1 Samuel 16 a shepherd boy named David is anointed the next king of Israel. David does not inherit the throne immediately, but he was promised it. The majority of the remainder of 1 Samuel is David’s ascension to the throne as he was promised in 1 Samuel 16. Despite this, he does not receive the inheritance until 2 Samuel 2. In this time between the promise and inheritance, David must flee from Saul in 1 Samuel 19 as Saul tries to kill David and he remains an exile and fugitive until the end of 1 Samuel 31, the death of Saul. The audience would be reminded of this time between the promise and inheritance as Psalms 33 LXX is written during that time.
David writes Psalms 33 LXX while he is in living as an exile and sojourner among the Philistines. He is living between the promise and the inheritance which is similar to that of the audience of 1 Peter. Not only is this connection present, but also during David’s exile, he had a chance to kill Saul but chose to pay Saul back with good instead of evil in 1 Samuel 24. This would be a direct correlation to 1 Peter 3:9 as he says to not return evil for evil. This quote of the Psalms makes David an exemplar that the audience is being encouraged to model as he lived well as an exile and sojourner. He lived as a person faithful to God as he was promised an inheritance and was living in the space in-between. The audience has entered into the story of David as they find themselves in a similar situation because they are promised an inheritance but called to be faithful.
Summary
Many commentators will focus on connecting 3:9 to one of the people or groups discussed earlier. Instead of focusing on only one exemplar like most commentators, which would be a mistake as it would neglect Peters use of many exemplars throughout the letter, it is best to appreciate the plurality of images as Peter has several different exemplars in mind. To dwindled “inheritance” down to only one image is to neglect the rich theological connections that Peter has been developing throughout the book. The immediate context includes allusions to David, Abraham, Israel, Jesus, and Esau. It would be inappropriate to choose an individual one for the allusion as the immediate context can support each one which enriches “inheritance.” This is a summary to the household codes and a good summary brings together all the ideas of the prior section. Therefore, readers should see inheritance through the lens of each exemplar.
Forming the social identity of the congregation, Peter has masterfully brought together exemplars and prototypes that embody the characteristics that he is expecting his audience to have. He has taken what is often considered a negative, non-retaliation, and instead, provides a positive exemplar for the congregations to follow. Peter has not only formed the congregation using principles from Social Identity theory, but he also accomplished the requirement for Narrative Transportation Theory in that the audience has been provided identifiable characters that can be related to. Not only would the audience connect with Jesus, David, Israel, Abraham, and Esau, but also, each one has an imaginable plot that would stir mental imagery as each person is relatable and each story is realistic and believable. 1 Peter is a masterful work that shapes the audience and forms their social identity as they follow in the steps of their exemplars.
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In text Citations
1 Miroslav Volf, Exclusion and Embrace, Revised and Updated: A Theological Exploration of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2019), 213.
2 David M. Shaw, “Called to Bless: Considering an Under-Appreciated Aspect of ‘Doing Good’ in 1 Peter 3:8 – 17.” Biblical Theology Bulletin 50, no. 3 (2020): 162
3 Ibid.
4 Melanie C. Green and Timothy C. Brock, “The Role of Transportation in the Persuasiveness of Public Narrative.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, no. 5 (2000): 703-707
5 Tom Van Laer, “The Extended Transportation-Imagery Model: A Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents and Consequences of Consumers’ Narrative Transportation.” Journal of Consumer Research 40, no. 5 (2014): 802
6 Shaw, Called to Bless, 162
7 Ibid., 163
8 Paul J. Achtemeier, 1 Peter: A Commentary on First Peter, ed. Eldon Jay Epp, Hermeneia—a Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1996), 222.
9 Ramsey J. Michaels, 1 Peter: Word Biblical Commentary. (Vol. 49. Dallas: Word Incorporated, 1988). 177
10 Greg W. Forbes, 1 Peter, ed. Andreas J. Köstenberger and Robert W. Yarbrough, Exegetical Guide to the Greek New Testament (B&H Academic; WORDsearch, 2016), 108.
11 Charles Bigg, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude, International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: T&T Clark International, 1901), 156.
12 Forbes, 1 Peter, 108.
13 Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 224.
14 Dennis Edwards, 1 Peter, ed. Scot McKnight, The Story of God Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2017), 143. – Connects this to the Sermon on the Mount
15 Edwin A. Blum, “1 Peter,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Hebrews through Revelation, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein, vol. 12 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1981), 238.
16 Wayne A. Grudem, 1 Peter: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 17, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1988), 154.
17 Robert Lee. Richardson, “From ‘Subjection to Authority’ to ‘Mutual Submission’: The Ethic of Subordination in 1 Peter.” Faith and Mission 4, no. 2 (1987): 74
18 There is not enough time in this paper to address the complications of this passage. From the commentaries read, it appears as if Elliot (609); Achtemeier (224) Michaels (178-79) Jobes (219) and Dubis (99) all agree that ὅτι εἰς τοῦτο ἐκλήθητε refers to being called to not retaliate and that being blessed is the result, not the purpose.
19 Paul L. Hammer, “Inheritance (NT),” ed. David Noel Freedman, The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 416.(need to update source to have full range of article)
20 Michaels, 1 Peter, 179.
21 Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 224.
22 Michaels, 1 Peter, 921.
23 Deuteronomy 11:26-16:17
24 Sean M. Christensen, “Solidarity in Suffering and Glory: The Unifying Role of Psalm 34 in 1 Peter 3:10- 12.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 58, no. 2 (June 2015): 341
25 Shaw, Called to Bless, 166
26 Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 227.
27 Shaw, Called to Bless, 167
Bibliography
Achtemeier, Paul J. 1 Peter: A Commentary on First Peter (Hermeneia – a Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible). Edited by Eldon Jay Epp. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996.
Bigg, Charles. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude (International Critical Commentary). Edinburgh: T&T Clark International, 1901.
Blum, Edwin A. 1 Peter (The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Hebrews through Revelation). Edited by Frank E Gaebelein. Vol. 12. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1981.
Christensen, Sean M. “Solidarity in Suffering and Glory: The Unifying Role of Psalm 34 in 1 Peter 3:10-12.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 58, no. 2 (June 2015): 335-52.
Edwards, Dennis R. 1 Peter (The Story of God Bible Commentary). Edited by Scot McKnight. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017.
Forbes, Greg W. 1 Peter (Exegetical Guide to the Greek New Testament). Edited by Andreas J Köstenberger, & Robert W Yarbrough. B&H Academic: WORDsearch, 2016.
Green, Melanie C, and Timothy C Brock. “The Role of Transportation in the Persuasiveness of Public Narrative.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, no. 5 (2000): 701- 21.
Grudem, Wayne A. 1 Peter: An Introduction and Commentary (Tyndale New Testament Commentaries). Vol. 17. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1988.
Hammer, Paul L. “Inheritance (NT).” In The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary, by David Noel Freedman, 415-417. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
Michaels, Ramsey J. 1 Peter (Word Biblical Commentary). Vol. 49. Dallas: Word Incorporated, 1988.
Richardson, Robert Lee. “From ‘Subjection to Authority’ to ‘Mutual Submission’: The Ethic of Subordination in 1 Peter.” Faith and Mission 4, no. 2 (1987): 70-80.
Shaw, David M. “Called to Bless: Considering an Under-Appreciated Aspect of ‘Doing Good’ in 1 Peter 3:8 – 17.” Biblical Theology Bulletin 50, no. 3 (2020): 161-73.
Van Laer, Tom. “The Extended Transportation-Imagery Model: A Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents and Consequences of Consumers’ Narrative Transportation.” Journal of Consumer Research 40, no. 5 (2014): 797-817.
Volf, Miroslav. Exclusion and Embrace, Revised and Updated: A theological Exploration of Identity, Otherness, and Reconciliation. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2019.